Друзья молитесь так !Gospel Jesus Politic Party 2217 Friends Lord, Oxford Кembridg United Kingdom England - Новости

The mission of Jesus Christ Gospel Jesus Politic Party Direction in the UN

Безусловно, Иисус Христос является величайшей Личностью в истории человечества. Несмотря на то, что Он прожил совсем недолгую жизнь, всего 33 года. Причем, общественной деятельностью Он занимался...

Адрес: Израиль, 7958500, Oxford Кembridg United Kingdom England, , Jerusalem The Temple Mount is the Armenian quarter with Oxford Venue Contact Christian Church United Kingdom England Washington Mosque The Al-Aqsa Jerusalem Joanna Malton Christian Сhurch United Kingdom Oxford Universitet

Телефон: +7(953)270-90-00

E-mail адрес: serzh.yakunoff@yandex.ru

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Друзья молитесь так !Gospel Jesus Politic Party 2217 Friends Lord

Sobor Sione three-Jesus star

@SerzhYakunoff

Lord Gospel Jesus Politic Party start unit elections internationale+registr Candidat development Programe+Friendly IT Development+252 Contry President+legal maj

SLOGAN AGRO BUSSNESS COMPANY AGRO NATURAL PRODUCT CHEMISTRY0%TRIUMF GOD JESUS CHRIST+благодаря предл международная перевозка сущ

international transport, international transportation, international carriage, international traffic, international shipment, international shipping, international freightтаможенный орган сущ

custom authority

customs house, customs authority, customs body, customs office, customs administration

(таможня, таможенная служба, таможенная администрация)

customs agency

(таможенное агентство)

(международный транспорт, международные грузоперевозки, международный трафик, международное судоходство)таможенный прил

customs, customконкуренция сущ ж

competition, rivalry, competitor

(соревнование, соперничество, конкурент)

competitiveness

(конкурентоспособность)

contention

(пользовательский)филе сущ ср

fillet, filet, sirloin

(выкружка, вырезка)

revenueтаможня сущ ж

customs, custom

(таможенник, обычай)

customhouse

customs office, customs house

(таможенный орган)

сообщить об ошибке

Примеры

все

customs

customhouse

customs office

customs house

customsсущ

Я покинул посадочное поле и прошел через таможню — если это можно было так назвать. Таможенники просто выполнили необходимые формальности.

I walked off the field and went through customs-if you could call it customs. They just went through the motions.

thanks to, due to, through, because of, by virtue of, owing to

(ввиду, вследствие, из-за)

благодарить гл

thank, appreciate, praise

(поблагодарить, ценить, хвалить)

Великобритания, 0185275174, Oxford Кembridg, , Jerusalem the temple mount is the Armenian quarter withSobor Sione three-Jesus star

‏CRIPTO-666-BLOCHAIN-SELF MENEDGMENT PROGECT MENEDGMENT+REGISTRATIONE BUSSNESS COMPANY INVESTMENNTS 500%1000%AGROCULTURE 1500%Meat is a valuable source of protein and dietary fiber, its heterogeneous structure requires special storage conditions. The slightest fluctuations in temperature and humidity - cause instant growth of bacteria and spoilage of the product.

Meat is stored in special chambers. Each class and category uses its own technology, including the use of refrigeration equipment.

Types of meat according to the degree of cooling

The sale comes chilled, frozen and frozen meat. Steam retains its properties (temperature within +35...38°C, aroma, elasticity) only for 1.5 hours after slaughter, because the refrigerator is not placed. All other categories are stored under the following conditions.

Refrigerated. Its temperature ranges from 0...+4°C. Meat fully retains its original properties, muscle mass is sufficiently elastic – not deep, slightly frozen crust prevents evaporation of moisture. Before the state of the product is brought in a refrigerator with a temperature not lower than 0°C. the Crust is formed during storage on refrigerated racks.

Frozen meat. Initially briefly placed in the freezer, where the freezing of the carcass is not more than 25% of its volume. Then it is sent to the refrigerator for storage. The variant of the preparation and storage of frozen meat with the use of a single camera with a wide temperature range. First, it lowers the temperature for freezing carcasses, and then rises to the optimal values for storage.

Frozen. It is a deep-frozen product with a temperature of muscle mass no higher than -8°C. the Whole or pre-cut carcass is immediately placed in the freezer, where it is stored. Low-temperature chambers are used for this purpose.

The meat processing plants are equipped with cooling and freezing chambers for the storage of whole and cut carcasses. Their dimensions, design, set of cooling equipment are selected depending on the processed volume and type of product. For example, cattle meat is frozen at lower temperatures than poultry meat, requires a large volume, the presence of special hangers and racks.

Technology of cooling meat

Before placing in the refrigerator carcass is necessarily subjected to a primary sanitary treatment. Further, the whole, cut in half or a quarter of the carcass hung on hooks in the refrigerator. The temperature should be the same at all points. The stagnant air is excluded – it's uniform motion and air distribution required.

Medium-temperature refrigerating units are used for arrangement of refrigerating chambers in which meat is cooled, but not subjected to intensive freezing. They are selected depending on the volume of the chamber and processed products. A prerequisite for its proper operation is filling in strict accordance with the dimensions – overload leads to an increase in temperature and deterioration of ventilation. This immediately affects the quality of the product. Microclimate parameters are set depending on the cooling rate.

Slow. Processing time 30-36 hours, optimum humidity 87-97%, air velocity – 0,1-0,3 m/s. Under these conditions, the meat is brought to the temperature of muscle mass +2...4°C. Shrinkage is from 0.8 to 2.6% depending on the method of cutting carcasses.

Accelerated. Lowering the temperature to 0°C and increasing the air velocity to 0.5 m/s significantly accelerates the process. Accelerated cooling under these conditions takes 24 hours, but the shrinkage is not less than 1.5% of the original volume.

Intensive. In tunnel refrigerating chambers the temperature from -3 to -12°C and air speed from 0,8 to 2 m/s are created. Under such conditions carcasses of cattle are cooled for 6-12 hours. The processing time depends on the volume of the batch, the temperature inside the chamber and the finished product.

Methods of freezing of meat

Freezing of meat in industrial conditions is carried out in freezers equipped with powerful low-temperature units. There are two ways of freezing meat – one - and two-phase. In the first case carcasses after primary processing immediately housed in low-temperature freezer. In the second, the meat is pre-cooled to +4°C, and then frozen. For processing speed differences.

Slow freezing. It takes 35-40 hours, requires a temperature in the chamber from 18 to -23°C, a humidity level of 90-95%, air velocity of not more than 0.2 m/s.

Accelerated. Produced a maximum of 28 hours at a temperature of -23...-30°C, humidity 90-95% and air movement at a speed of 0.5 to 0.8 m/s.

Fast. It requires 18 hours and lowering the temperature to -35°C. the air Speed is increased to 4 m/s.

Freezers are equipped with hanging hangers or special racks for contact freezing. They are frozen pieces weighing up to 25 kg.

Special equipment

The right choice of the complete set for the refrigerating and freezing chamber guarantees its correct and stable work. Only professionals with extensive experience should trust the design, Assembly and installation. They will not only perform their work at a high level, but also provide qualified service.

To ORDER the SERVICE please fill out an application on the website, we will contact you shortly and answer all your questions.

Goods

Low temperature monoblock ALS 218

Ariada.

In stock

Split system medium temperature KMS 107

Ariada.

In stock

Refrigerating chamber to order

Refrigerating chamber

Under the order

@SerzhYakunoff

17 мая

Еще Sobor Sione three-Jesus star Ретвитнул(а) Sobor Sione three-Jesus star

DEAR FRIENDLY DEAR BRUDERS DEAR SISTER B И МЫ SOBOR SIONE JERUSALEM JESUS THREE они и мы пожелаем ему "мирных небесных дорог".JESUS PONTIFF

…sion-of-jesus-christ-in-the-un.n4.biz

Дата регистрации: май 2015 г.

Дата рождения: 03 марта9 Молитесь же так: Отче наш, сущий на небесах! да святится имя Твое;

10 да приидет Царствие Твое; да будет воля Твоя и на земле, как на небе;

11 хлеб наш насущный дай нам на сей день;

12 и прости нам долги наши, как и мы прощаем должникам нашим;

13 и не введи нас в искушение, но избавь нас от лукавого. Ибо Твое есть Царство и сила и слава во веки. Аминь. 9 Pray like this: our father who art in heaven! hallowed be Thy name;

10 Thy Kingdom come; Thy will be done, on earth as it is in heaven.

11 our daily bread give us this day;

12 and forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors.

13 and lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from the evil one. For Thine is the Kingdom and the power and the glory forever and ever. Amen.Мясо является ценным источником белка и пищевых волокон, его неоднородная структура требует создания особых условий хранения. Малейшие колебания температуры и влажности - вызывают моментальный рост бактерий и порчу продукта.

Хранят мясо в специальных камерах. Для каждого сорта и категории используется своя технология, предусматривающая использование холодильного оборудования.

Виды мяса по степени охлаждения

В продажу поступает охлажденное, подмороженное и замороженное мясо ХРАНИТСЯ БОЛЬШЕ ГОДА ПРИ-35 . Парное сохраняет свои свойства (температуру в пределах +35...38°С, аромат, упругость) только в течение 1,5 часов после убоя скота, потому в холодильную камеру не помещается. Все остальные категории хранятся при нижеследующих условиях.

Охлажденное. Его температура колеблется в диапазоне 0...+4°С. Мясо полностью сохраняет свои изначальные свойства, мышечная масса достаточно упругая – не глубокая, слегка подмерзшая корочка препятствует испарению влаги. До того состояния продукт доводится в холодильной камере с температурой не ниже 0°С. Корочка образуется при хранении на охлаждаемых стеллажах.

Подмороженное мясо. Изначально ненадолго помещается в морозильную камеру, где производится промерзание туши не более 25% от ее объема. Далее отправляется на хранение в холодильник. Возможен вариант приготовления и хранения подмороженного мяса с использование одной камеры с широким температурным диапазоном. Сначала в ней опускается температура для промерзания туши, а затем повышается до оптимальных для хранения значений.

Замороженное. Представляет собой продукт глубокой заморозки с температурой мышечной массы не выше -8°С. Целую или предварительно разделанную тушу сразу помещают в морозильник, где она и хранится. Для этой цели используются низкотемпературные камеры.

На мясоперерабатывающих комбинатах обустраиваются камеры охлаждения и заморозки для хранения целых и разделанных туш. Их габариты, конструкция, комплект охлаждающего оборудования подбираются в зависимости от обрабатываемого объема и типа продукции. К примеру, мясо крупного рогатого скота замораживается при более низких температурах, чем мясо птицы, требует большого объема, наличия специальных вешалок и стеллажей.

Технологии охлаждения мяса

Перед помещением в холодильник тушу обязательно подвергают первичной санитарной обработке. Далее целые, разделанные пополам или на четверти туши подвешиваются на крюки в холодильной камере. Температура должна быть одинаковой во всех точках. Застой воздуха исключен – его равномерное движение и обдув обязательны.

Для обустройства холодильных камер, в которых мясо охлаждается, но не подвергается интенсивной заморозке, используются среднетемпературные холодильные агрегаты. Они подбираются в зависимости от объемов камеры и перерабатываемой продукции. Обязательным условием ее правильной эксплуатации является заполнение в строгом соответствии с габаритами – перегруз ведет к повышению температуры и ухудшению вентиляции. Это моментально сказывается на качестве продукта. Параметры микроклимата выставляются в зависимости от скорости охлаждения.

Медленное. Время обработки 30-36 часов, оптимальная влажность 87-97%, скорость движения воздуха – 0,1-0,3м/с. При этих условиях мясо доводится до температуры мышечной массы +2...4°С. Усушка составляет от 0,8 до 2,6% в зависимости от способа разделки туши.

Ускоренное. Понижение температуры до 0°С и повышение скорости движения воздуха до 0,5м/с существенно ускоряет процесс. Ускоренное охлаждение при этих условиях занимает 24 часа, но усушка составляет не менее 1,5% изначального объема.

Интенсивное. В туннельных холодильных камерах создается температура от -3 до -12°С и скорость движения воздуха от 0,8 до 2м/с. При таких условиях туши КРС охлаждаются за 6-12 часов. Время обработки напрямую зависит от объема партии, температуры внутри камеры и готового продукта.

Методы заморозки мяса

Заморозка мяса в промышленных условиях производится в морозильных камерах, оснащенных мощными низкотемпературными агрегатами. Существует два способа заморозки мяса – одно- и двухфазный. В первом случае туши после первичной обработки сразу помещают в низкотемпературный морозильник. Во втором мясо предварительно охлаждают до +4°С, а затем замораживают. По скорости обработки различают.

Медленное замораживание. Занимает 35-40 часов, требует температуры в камере от 18 до -23°С, уровня влажности в 90-95%, скорости движения воздуха не более 0,2м/с.

Ускоренное. Производится максимум за 28 часов при температуре -23...-30°С, влажности в 90-95% и движении воздуха при скорости от 0,5 до 0,8м/с.

Быстрое. Требует 18 часов и понижения температуры до -35°С. ХРАНИТСЯ 1 ГОД И БОЛЬШЕ 2 3 ГОДА Скорость воздуха при этом повышается до 4 м/с.

Морозильные камеры оснащаются подвесными вешалками или специальными стеллажами для контактного замораживания. На них замораживаются куски весом до 25 кг.

Специальное оборудование

Правильный выбор комплектации для холодильной и морозильной камеры гарантирует ее правильную и стабильную работу. Доверять проектирование, сборку и монтаж нужно только профессионалам с большим опытом. Они не только выполнят свою работу на высоком уровне, но и обеспечат квалифицированное сервисное обслуживание.

ЗАКАЗАТЬ УСЛУГУ Оформите заявку на сайте в яндексе,.

Товары

Моноблок низкотемпературный ALS 218

Ариада

В наличии

Сплит-система среднетемпературная КMS 107

Ариада

Холодильная камера на заказ

Холодильные камеры

Под заказSobor Sione three-Jesus star

‏

@SerzhYakunoff

8 апр.

Еще Sobor Sione three-Jesus star Ретвитнул(а) Sobor Sione three-Jesus star

PRESIDENT REGISTR MAGISTR DOCTOR PROFESOR PROGRAME DEVELOPMENT REESTR LAW ECONOMIC BUSSNESS POLITIC+Sobor Sione three-Jesus star добавил(а),Sobor Sione three-Jesus star

‏таможенное управление сущ

customs administration, customs department, customs office, customs authority, customs, customs board, customs agency

(таможенная администрация, таможенный департамент, таможня, таможенный орган)

customs management

customs Directorate

@SerzhYakunoff

3 апр.

Еще

OXFORD KEMBRIDG HARWARD MOSKOW LOMONOSOW UNIVERSITY YALE LAW ECONOMIC BUSNESS+

Sobor Sione three-Jesus starв начале нареч

at the beginning, in the beginning, early, at the start, at the outset, at the onsetSobor Sione three-Jesus star

‏

@SerzhYakunoff

3 апр.

Еще Sobor Sione three-Jesus star Ретвитнул(а) Sobor Sione three-Jesus star

система оценивания сущ

assessment system, evaluation system

(система оценки) SHOOL LICEUM GIMNASIUM UNIVERSITET LAW+SELF MENEDGMENT DEVELOPMENT FRIENDLY AGRO NATURAL PRODUCT+PROGECT SELF MENEDGMENT+

(в самом начале, с самого начала)окорок сущ м

ham, gammonбез (безо) предл

without, minus, less, exclusive of, sans

(исключая)

(ветчина)Как вам арбуз без косточек?

How about the seedless watermelon?свежий прил

fresh, crisp, refreshing

(пресный, хрустящий, прохладительный)

new, recent

(новый, последний)

breezy

(прохладный)

окорка сущ жсупермаркет сущ м

supermarket, superstore, mallгипермаркет сущ м торговый комплекс сущ

shopping complex, shopping mall, shopping center, commercial complex

(торговый центр, коммерческий комплекс)

trading complex

trade complexкрупный торговый центр сущ

large shopping centeramer, large shopping centrebrit, large shopping mall, big shopping centre, big shopping mall

(большой торговый центр)

large trading centerобеспечение сущ ср

provision

(предоставление)

security

(безопасность)

support

(поддержка)

hypermarket, superstoreвключенный прич

included

(внесенный)

incorporated, integrated

(объединенный)

involved

(супермаркет)

(универсам, торговый центр)

barking

debarking

at first, initially

(вначале, первоначально)

at the top

(в верхней части) регистрация сущ ж

registration, registering

(оформление)

(журнал)

recording

(запись) регистрация предприятий сущ

registration of enterprises

business registration, company registration

(регистрация бизнеса, регистрация компании)

регистрация предприятия сущ

enterprise registrationнебольшой прил

small

(малый)

little, tiny, insignificant, modest, short, few

(маленький, незначительный, скромный, короткий)

slight, minor, moderate, meagre

(незначительный, умеренный, скудный)розничная торговля сущ

retailer, retail sale

(розничный торговец, розничная продажа)

retail trade, retail business, retail

(розничная продажа, розница)

trade

(торговля)оптом нареч

by the gross, in bulk

(в большом)

оптом сущ м

by the gross, in bulk

(в большом)международный прил

international, multinational

(интернациональный, многонациональный)

internationally

(на международном уровне)

wholesaleОкорок

[править | править код]

Материал из Википедии — свободной энциклопедии

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Окорока́

О́корок — часть свиной ( — бараньей или телячьей) туши: тазобедренная (задний окорок) или плечелопаточная (передний окорок)[1].

Содержание

1 Разновидности окороков

2 Употребление окороков

3 Этимология

4 См. также

5 Примечания

Разновидности окороков[править | править код]

Окорока производятся из свиной туши мясной или беконной упитанности:

Воронежские окорока — из плечелопаточной части;

Тамбовские окорока — из тазобедренной части;

Солёный окорок используется для приготовления ветчины[2].

Употребление окороков[править | править код]

Окорок употребляется в пищу в варёном, запечённом, копчёном и варёно-копчёном виде[1]. Жареный идёт в качестве самостоятельного блюда с гарниром (например, из зелёного горошка, ветчины или фасоли). К холодному окороку, нарезанному ломтями, могут подавать в качестве гарнира огурцы, салат, помидоры или иные овощи[2].

Этимология[править | править код]

Слово «окорок» — исконно русское и отсутствует в других славянских языках. При этом, слово известно со времён Древней Руси, оно встречается уже в русском переводе Хроники Георгия Амартола в форме «окорокы прѣсѣкати», что по мнению филолога И. И. Срезневского следует переводить на современный язык как «коленные сухожилия»[3]. Первоначально слово означало «мясо вокруг ноги» и происходит от обще-славянского *kork- «нога». Отсюда же болг. крак(ът) — «нога», серб. крак — «голень», польск. krok — «шаг» и др.[4]

См. также[править | править код]

Ветчина

Прошутто

Пармская ветчина

Хамонam

[edit | edit code]

Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Hamś

Ham — part of pork (less often — lamb or veal) carcass: hip (rear ham) or shoulder (front ham)[1].

Content

1 Varieties of ham

2 Use of ham

3 Etymology

4 see Para. also

5 notes

Varieties of ham[edit | edit code]

Hams are made of pork carcass of meat or bacon fatness:

Voronezh ham — from the shoulder part;

Tambov ham — from the hip;

Salted ham is used to make ham[2].

The use of ham[edit | edit the code]

Ham is eaten boiled, baked, smoked and boiled-smoked [1]. Fried goes as an independent dish with garnish (for example, from green peas, ham or beans). To cold ham, sliced, can be served as a side dish cucumbers, salad, tomatoes or other vegetables[2].

Etymology[edit | edit code]

The word "ham" is native Russian and is absent in other Slavic languages. In this case, the word is known since the times of Ancient Rus, it is found in the Russian translation of the Chronicle of George Hamartolos in the form of "okorocha prestiti", which according to the linguist I. I. sreznevskii should be translated into modern language as the "patellar tendon"[3]. Originally the word meant "meat around the leg" and comes from the common Slavic *kork- "foot". Hence the Bolg. Krak(Kommersant) — "leg", Serb. Krak — "Shin", Polish. krok — "step" , etc. [4]

See. also[edit | edit code]

Ham

Prosciutto

Parma ham

Jamon

Prosciutto

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Maps of Elections in Previous YearsAgriculture

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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"Farming" redirects here. For other uses, see Farming (disambiguation).

Harvesting wheat with a combine harvester accompanied by a tractor and trailer

Agriculture is the science and art of cultivating plants and livestock.[1] Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled people to live in cities. The history of agriculture began thousands of years ago. After gathering wild grains beginning at least 105,000 years ago, nascent farmers began to plant them around 11,500 years ago. Pigs, sheep and cattle were domesticated over 10,000 years ago. Plants were independently cultivated in at least 11 regions of the world. Industrial agriculture based on large-scale monoculture in the twentieth century came to dominate agricultural output, though about 2 billion people still depended on subsistence agriculture into the twenty-first.

Modern agronomy, plant breeding, agrochemicals such as pesticides and fertilizers, and technological developments have sharply increased yields, while causing widespread ecological and environmental damage. Selective breeding and modern practices in animal husbandry have similarly increased the output of meat, but have raised concerns about animal welfare and environmental damage. Environmental issues include contributions to global warming, depletion of aquifers, deforestation, antibiotic resistance, and growth hormones in industrial meat production. Genetically modified organisms are widely used, although some are banned in certain countries.

The major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into foods, fibers, fuels and raw materials (such as rubber). Food classes include cereals (grains), vegetables, fruits, oils, meat, milk, fungi and eggs. Over one-third of the world's workers are employed in agriculture, second only to the service sector, although the number of agricultural workers in developed countries has decreased significantly over the centuries.

Agriculture

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Contents

1 Etymology and scope

2 History

2.1 Origins

2.2 Civilizations

2.3 Revolution

3 Types

4 Contemporary agriculture

4.1 Status

4.2 Workforce

4.3 Safety

5 Production

5.1 Crop cultivation systems

5.2 Livestock production systems

5.3 Production practices

6 Crop alteration and biotechnology

6.1 Genetic engineering

7 Environmental impact

7.1 Effects and costs

7.2 Livestock issues

7.3 Land and water issues

7.4 Pesticides

7.5 Global warming

7.6 Sustainability

7.7 Energy dependence

8 Disciplines

8.1 Agricultural economics

8.2 Agricultural science

9 Policy

10 See also

11 References

12 Cited sources

13 External links

Etymology and scope

The word agriculture is a late Middle English adaptation of Latin agricultūra, from ager, "field", which in its turn came from Greek αγρός, and cultūra, "cultivation" or "growing".[2] While agriculture usually refers to human activities, certain species of ant, termite and ambrosia beetle also cultivate crops.[3] Agriculture is defined with varying scopes, in its broadest sense using natural resources to "produce commodities which maintain life, including food, fiber, forest products, horticultural crops, and their related services".[4] Thus defined, it includes arable farming, horticulture, animal husbandry and forestry, but horticulture and forestry are in practice often excluded.[4]

History

Main article: History of agriculture

Origins

Main article: Neolithic Revolution

Centres of origin, as numbered by Nikolai Vavilov in the 1930s. Area 3 (gray) is no longer recognised as a centre of origin, and Papua New Guinea (area P, orange) was identified more recently.[5][6]

The development of agriculture enabled the human population to grow many times larger than could be sustained by hunting and gathering.[7] Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe, and included a diverse range of taxa, in at least 11 separate centres of origin.[5] Wild grains were collected and eaten from at least 105,000 years ago.[8] From around 11,500 years ago, the eight Neolithic founder crops, emmer and einkorn wheat, hulled barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chick peas and flax were cultivated in the Levant. Rice was domesticated in China between 11,500 and 6,200 BC with the earliest known cultivation from 5,700 BC,[9] followed by mung, soy and azuki beans. Sheep were domesticated in Mesopotamia between 13,000 and 11,000 years ago.[10] Cattle were domesticated from the wild aurochs in the areas of modern Turkey and Pakistan some 10,500 years ago.[11] Pig production emerged in Eurasia, including Europe, East Asia and Southwest Asia,[12] where wild boar were first domesticated about 10,500 years ago.[13] In the Andes of South America, the potato was domesticated between 10,000 and 7,000 years ago, along with beans, coca, llamas, alpacas, and guinea pigs. Sugarcane and some root vegetables were domesticated in New Guinea around 9,000 years ago. Sorghum was domesticated in the Sahel region of Africa by 7,000 years ago. Cotton was domesticated in Peru by 5,600 years ago,[14] and was independently domesticated in Eurasia. In Mesoamerica, wild teosinte was bred into maize by 6,000 years ago.[15] Scholars have offered multiple hypotheses to explain the historical origins of agriculture. Studies of the transition from hunter-gatherer to agricultural societies indicate an initial period of intensification and increasing sedentism; examples are the Natufian culture in the Levant, and the Early Chinese Neolithic in China. Then, wild stands that had previously been harvested started to be planted, and gradually came to be domesticated.[16][17][18]

Civilizations

Agricultural scenes of threshing, a grain store, harvesting with sickles, digging, tree-cutting and ploughing from Ancient Egypt. Tomb of Nakht, 15th century BC

In Eurasia, the Sumerians started to live in villages from about 8,000 BC, relying on the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and a canal system for irrigation. Ploughs appear in pictographs around 3,000 BC; seed-ploughs around 2,300 BC. Farmers grew wheat, barley, vegetables such as lentils and onions, and fruits including dates, grapes, and figs.[19] Ancient Egyptian agriculture relied on the Nile River and its seasonal flooding. Farming started in the predynastic period at the end of the Paleolithic, after 10,000 BC. Staple food crops were grains such as wheat and barley, alongside industrial crops such as flax and papyrus.[20][21] In India, wheat, barley and jujube were domesticated by 9,000 BC, soon followed by sheep and goats.[22] Cattle, sheep and goats were domesticated in Mehrgarh culture by 8,000–6,000 BC.[23][24][24][25] Cotton was cultivated by the 5th–4th millennium BC.[26] Archeological evidence indicates an animal-drawn plough from 2,500 BC in the Indus Valley Civilisation.[27] In China, from the 5th century BC there was a nationwide granary system and widespread silk farming.[28] Water-powered grain mills were in use by the 1st century BC,[29] followed by irrigation.[30] By the late 2nd century, heavy ploughs had been developed with iron ploughshares and mouldboards.[31][32] These spread westwards across Eurasia.[33] Asian rice was domesticated 8,200–13,500 years ago – depending on the molecular clock estimate that is used[34] – on the Pearl River in southern China with a single genetic origin from the wild rice Oryza rufipogon.[35] In Greece and Rome, the major cereals were wheat, emmer, and barley, alongside vegetables including peas, beans, and olives. Sheep and goats were kept mainly for dairy products.[36][37]

In the Americas, crops domesticated in Mesoamerica (apart from teosinte) include squash, beans, and cocoa.[38] Cocoa was being domesticated by the Mayo Chinchipe of the upper Amazon around 3,000 BC.[39] The turkey was probably domesticated in Mexico or the American Southwest.[40] The Aztecs developed irrigation systems, formed terraced hillsides, fertilized their soil, and developed chinampas or artificial islands. The Mayas used extensive canal and raised field systems to farm swampland from 400 BC.[41][42][43][44][45] Coca was domesticated in the Andes, as were the peanut, tomato, tobacco, and pineapple.[38] Cotton was domesticated in Peru by 3,600 BC.[46] Animals including llamas, alpacas, and guinea pigs were domesticated there.[47] In North America, the indigenous people of the East domesticated crops such as sunflower, tobacco,[48] squash and Chenopodium.[49][50] Wild foods including wild rice and maple sugar were harvested.[51] The domesticated strawberry is a hybrid of a Chilean and a North American species, developed by breeding in Europe and North America.[52] The indigenous people of the Southwest and the Pacific Northwest practiced forest gardening and fire-stick farming. The natives controlled fire on a regional scale to create a low-intensity fire ecology that sustained a low-density agriculture in loose rotation; a sort of "wild" permaculture.[53][54][55][56] A system of companion planting called the Three Sisters was developed on the Great Plains. The three crops were winter squash, maize, and climbing beans.[57][58]

Indigenous Australians, long supposed to have been nomadic hunter-gatherers, practised systematic burning to enhance natural productivity in fire-stick farming.[59] The Gunditjmara and other groups developed eel farming and fish trapping systems from some 5,000 years ago.[60] There is evidence of 'intensification' across the whole continent over that period.[61] In two regions of Australia, the central west coast and eastern central, early farmers cultivated yams, native millet, and bush onions, possibly in permanent settlements.[62][18]

Revolution

The Arab Agricultural Revolution, starting in Al-Andalus (Islamic Spain), transformed agriculture with improved techniques and the diffusion of crop plants.[63]

In the Middle Ages, both in the Islamic world and in Europe, agriculture was transformed with improved techniques and the diffusion of crop plants, including the introduction of sugar, rice, cotton and fruit trees such as the orange to Europe by way of Al-Andalus.[63][64] After 1492, the Columbian exchange brought New World crops such as maize, potatoes, tomatoes, sweet potatoes and manioc to Europe, and Old World crops such as wheat, barley, rice and turnips, and livestock including horses, cattle, sheep and goats to the Americas.[65] Irrigation, crop rotation, and fertilizers advanced from the 17th century with the British Agricultural Revolution, allowing global population to rise significantly. Since 1900, agriculture in developed nations, and to a lesser extent in the developing world, has seen large rises in productivity as human labor was replaced by mechanization, and assisted by synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, and selective breeding. The Haber-Bosch method allowed the synthesis of ammonium nitrate fertilizer on an industrial scale, greatly increasing crop yields and sustaining a further increase in global population.[66][67] Modern agriculture has raised ecological, political, and economic issues including water pollution, biofuels, genetically modified organisms, tariffs and farm subsidies, leading to alternative approaches such as the organic movement.[68][69]

Types

Reindeer herds form the basis of pastoral agriculture for several Arctic and Subarctic peoples.

Pastoralism involves managing domesticated animals. In nomadic pastoralism, herds of livestock are moved from place to place in search of pasture, fodder, and water. This type of farming is practised in arid and semi-arid regions of Sahara, Central Asia and some parts of India.[70]

In shifting cultivation, a small area of forest is cleared by cutting and burning the trees. The cleared land is used for growing crops for a few years until the soil becomes too infertile, and the area is abandoned. Another patch of land is selected and the process is repeated. This type of farming is practiced mainly in areas with abundant rainfall where the forest regenerates quickly. This practice is used in Northeast India, Southeast Asia, and the Amazon Basin.[71]

Spreading manure by hand in Zambia

Subsistence farming is practiced to satisfy family or local needs alone, with little left over for transport elsewhere. It is intensively practiced in Monsoon Asia and South-East Asia.[72] An estimated 2.5 billion subsistence farmers worked in 2018, cultivating about 60% of the earth's arable land.[73]

Intensive farming is cultivation to maximise profit, with a low fallow ratio and a high use of inputs (water, fertilizer, pesticide and automation). It is practiced mainly in developed countries.[74][75]

Contemporary agriculture

Status

China has the largest agricultural output of any country.[76]

From the twentieth century, intensive agriculture increased productivity. It substituted synthetic fertilizers and pesticides for labor, but caused increased water pollution, and often involved farm subsidies. In recent years there has been a backlash against the environmental effects of conventional agriculture, resulting in the organic, regenerative, and sustainable agriculture movements.[68][77] One of the major forces behind this movement has been the European Union, which first certified organic food in 1991 and began reform of its Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) in 2005 to phase out commodity-linked farm subsidies,[78] also known as decoupling. The growth of organic farming has renewed research in alternative technologies such as integrated pest management, selective breeding,[79] and controlled-environment agriculture.[80][81] Recent mainstream technological developments include genetically modified food.[82] Demand for non-food biofuel crops,[83] development of former farm lands, rising transportation costs, climate change, growing consumer demand in China and India, and population growth,[84] are threatening food security in many parts of the world.[85][86][87][88][89] The International Fund for Agricultural Development posits that an increase in smallholder agriculture may be part of the solution to concerns about food prices and overall food security, given the favorable experience of Vietnam.[90] Soil degradation and diseases such as stem rust are major concerns globally;[91] approximately 40% of the world's agricultural land is seriously degraded.[92][93] By 2015, the agricultural output of China was the largest in the world, followed by the European Union, India and the United States.[76] Economists measure the total factor productivity of agriculture and by this measure agriculture in the United States is roughly 1.7 times more productive than it was in 1948.[94]

Workforce

On the three-sector theory, the proportion of people working in agriculture (left-hard bar in each group, green) falls as an economy becomes more developed.

Following the three-sector theory, the number of people employed in agriculture and other primary activities (such as fishing) can be more than 80% in the least developed countries, and less than 2% in the most highly developed countries.[95] Since the Industrial Revolution, many countries have made the transition to developed economies, and the proportion of people working in agriculture has steadily fallen. During the 16th century in Europe, for example, between 55 and 75% of the population was engaged in agriculture; by the 19th century, this had dropped to between 35 and 65%.[96] In the same countries today, the figure is less than 10%.[95] At the start of the 21st century, some one billion people, or over 1/3 of the available work force, were employed in agriculture. It constitutes approximately 70% of the global employment of children, and in many countries employs the largest percentage of women of any industry.[97] The service sector overtook the agricultural sector as the largest global employer in 2007.[98]

Safety

Rollover protection bar retrofitted to a mid-20th century Fordson tractor

Main article: Agricultural safety and health

Agriculture, specifically farming, remains a hazardous industry, and farmers worldwide remain at high risk of work-related injuries, lung disease, noise-induced hearing loss, skin diseases, as well as certain cancers related to chemical use and prolonged sun exposure. On industrialized farms, injuries frequently involve the use of agricultural machinery, and a common cause of fatal agricultural injuries in developed countries is tractor rollovers.[99] Pesticides and other chemicals used in farming can also be hazardous to worker health, and workers exposed to pesticides may experience illness or have children with birth defects.[100] As an industry in which families commonly share in work and live on the farm itself, entire families can be at risk for injuries, illness, and death.[101] Ages 0–6 may be an especially vulnerable population in agriculture;[102] common causes of fatal injuries among young farm workers include drowning, machinery and motor accidents, including with all-terrain vehicles.[101][102][103]

The International Labour Organization considers agriculture "one of the most hazardous of all economic sectors".[97] It estimates that the annual work-related death toll among agricultural employees is at least 170,000, twice the average rate of other jobs. In addition, incidences of death, injury and illness related to agricultural activities often go unreported.[104] The organization has developed the Safety and Health in Agriculture Convention, 2001, which covers the range of risks in the agriculture occupation, the prevention of these risks and the role that individuals and organizations engaged in agriculture should play.[97]

In the United States, agriculture has been identified by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health as a priority industry sector in the National Occupational Research Agenda to identify and provide intervention strategies for occupational health and safety issues.[105][106] In the European Union, the European Agency for Safety and Health at Work has issued guidelines on implementing health and safety directives in agriculture, livestock farming, horticulture, and forestry.[107] The Agricultural Safety and Health Council of America (ASHCA) also holds a yearly summit to discuss safety. In 2018, Joel Sherman, vice president of safety and corporate affairs for Grimmway Enterprises stated, “I hate the term ‘Safety First,’ because it makes you think of it as something separate from your work. Safety is not an interruption to your work. It’s the way you get your work done.” [108]

Production

Main article: List of countries by GDP sector composition

See also: List of most important agricultural crops worldwide

Overall production varies by country as listed.

Largest countries by agricultural output (in nominal terms) according to IMF and CIA World Factbook, at peak level as of 2018

Economy

Countries by agricultural output (in nominal terms) at peak level as of 2018 (billions in USD)

(01) China

1,117

(02) India

414

(—) European Union

308

(03) United States

185

(04) Brazil

162

(05) Indonesia

141

(06) Nigeria

123

(07) Russia

108

(08) Pakistan

(09) Argentina

(10) Turkey

(11) Japan

(12) France

(13) Iran

(14) Australia

(15) Mexico

(16) Italy

(17) Spain

(18) Bangladesh

(19) Thailand

(20) Egypt

The twenty largest countries by agricultural output (in nominal terms) at peak level as of 2018, according to the IMF and CIA World Factbook.

showLargest countries by agricultural output according to UNCTAD at 2005 constant prices and exchange rates, 2015[76]

Crop cultivation systems

Slash and burn shifting cultivation, Thailand

Cropping systems vary among farms depending on the available resources and constraints; geography and climate of the farm; government policy; economic, social and political pressures; and the philosophy and culture of the farmer.[109][110]

Shifting cultivation (or slash and burn) is a system in which forests are burnt, releasing nutrients to support cultivation of annual and then perennial crops for a period of several years.[111] Then the plot is left fallow to regrow forest, and the farmer moves to a new plot, returning after many more years (10–20). This fallow period is shortened if population density grows, requiring the input of nutrients (fertilizer or manure) and some manual pest control. Annual cultivation is the next phase of intensity in which there is no fallow period. This requires even greater nutrient and pest control inputs.[111]

Intercropping of coconut and Mexican marigold

Further industrialization led to the use of monocultures, when one cultivar is planted on a large acreage. Because of the low biodiversity, nutrient use is uniform and pests tend to build up, necessitating the greater use of pesticides and fertilizers.[110] Multiple cropping, in which several crops are grown sequentially in one year, and intercropping, when several crops are grown at the same time, are other kinds of annual cropping systems known as polycultures.[111]

In subtropical and arid environments, the timing and extent of agriculture may be limited by rainfall, either not allowing multiple annual crops in a year, or requiring irrigation. In all of these environments perennial crops are grown (coffee, chocolate) and systems are practiced such as agroforestry. In temperate environments, where ecosystems were predominantly grassland or prairie, highly productive annual farming is the dominant agricultural system.[111]

Important categories of food crops include cereals, legumes, forage, fruits and vegetables.[112] Natural fibers include cotton, wool, hemp, silk and flax.[113] Specific crops are cultivated in distinct growing regions throughout the world. Production is listed in millions of metric tons, based on FAO estimates.[112]

showTop agricultural products, by crop types

(million tonnes) 2004 data

showTop agricultural products, by individual crops

(million tonnes) 2011 data

Livestock production systems

Main articles: Livestock and Animal husbandry

See also: List of domesticated animals

Intensively farmed pigs

Animal husbandry is the breeding and raising of animals for meat, milk, eggs, or wool), and for work and transport.[114] Working animals, including horses, mules, oxen, water buffalo, camels, llamas, alpacas, donkeys, and dogs, have for centuries been used to help cultivate fields, harvest crops, wrangle other animals, and transport farm products to buyers.[115]

Livestock production systems can be defined based on feed source, as grassland-based, mixed, and landless.[116] As of 2010, 30% of Earth's ice- and water-free area was used for producing livestock, with the sector employing approximately 1.3 billion people. Between the 1960s and the 2000s, there was a significant increase in livestock production, both by numbers and by carcass weight, especially among beef, pigs and chickens, the latter of which had production increased by almost a factor of 10. Non-meat animals, such as milk cows and egg-producing chickens, also showed significant production increases. Global cattle, sheep and goat populations are expected to continue to increase sharply through 2050.[117] Aquaculture or fish farming, the production of fish for human consumption in confined operations, is one of the fastest growing sectors of food production, growing at an average of 9% a year between 1975 and 2007.[118]

During the second half of the 20th century, producers using selective breeding focused on creating livestock breeds and crossbreeds that increased production, while mostly disregarding the need to preserve genetic diversity. This trend has led to a significant decrease in genetic diversity and resources among livestock breeds, leading to a corresponding decrease in disease resistance and local adaptations previously found among traditional breeds.[119]

Raising chickens intensively for meat in a broiler house

Grassland based livestock production relies upon plant material such as shrubland, rangeland, and pastures for feeding ruminant animals. Outside nutrient inputs may be used, however manure is returned directly to the grassland as a major nutrient source. This system is particularly important in areas where crop production is not feasible because of climate or soil, representing 30–40 million pastoralists.[111] Mixed production systems use grassland, fodder crops and grain feed crops as feed for ruminant and monogastric (one stomach; mainly chickens and pigs) livestock. Manure is typically recycled in mixed systems as a fertilizer for crops.[116]

Landless systems rely upon feed from outside the farm, representing the de-linking of crop and livestock production found more prevalently in Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development member countries. Synthetic fertilizers are more heavily relied upon for crop production and manure utilization becomes a challenge as well as a source for pollution.[116] Industrialized countries use these operations to produce much of the global supplies of poultry and pork. Scientists estimate that 75% of the growth in livestock production between 2003 and 2030 will be in confined animal feeding operations, sometimes called factory farming. Much of this growth is happening in developing countries in Asia, with much smaller amounts of growth in Africa.[117] Some of the practices used in commercial livestock production, including the usage of growth hormones, are controversial.[120]

Production practices

Tilling an arable field

Further information: Tillage, Crop rotation, and Irrigation

Tillage is the practice of breaking up the soil with tools such as the plow or harrow to prepare for planting, for nutrient incorporation, or for pest control. Tillage varies in intensity from conventional to no-till. It may improve productivity by warming the soil, incorporating fertilizer and controlling weeds, but also renders soil more prone to erosion, triggers the decomposition of organic matter releasing CO2, and reduces the abundance and diversity of soil organisms.[121][122]

Pest control includes the management of weeds, insects, mites, and diseases. Chemical (pesticides), biological (biocontrol), mechanical (tillage), and cultural practices are used. Cultural practices include crop rotation, culling, cover crops, intercropping, composting, avoidance, and resistance. Integrated pest management attempts to use all of these methods to keep pest populations below the number which would cause economic loss, and recommends pesticides as a last resort.[123]

Nutrient management includes both the source of nutrient inputs for crop and livestock production, and the method of utilization of manure produced by livestock. Nutrient inputs can be chemical inorganic fertilizers, manure, green manure, compost and minerals.[124] Crop nutrient use may also be managed using cultural techniques such as crop rotation or a fallow period. Manure is used either by holding livestock where the feed crop is growing, such as in managed intensive rotational grazing, or by spreading either dry or liquid formulations of manure on cropland or pastures.[125][121]

A center pivot irrigation system

Water management is needed where rainfall is insufficient or variable, which occurs to some degree in most regions of the world.[111] Some farmers use irrigation to supplement rainfall. In other areas such as the Great Plains in the U.S. and Canada, farmers use a fallow year to conserve soil moisture to use for growing a crop in the following year.[126] Agriculture represents 70% of freshwater use worldwide.[127]

According to a report by the International Food Policy Research Institute, agricultural technologies will have the greatest impact on food production if adopted in combination with each other; using a model that assessed how eleven technologies could impact agricultural productivity, food security and trade by 2050, the International Food Policy Research Institute found that the number of people at risk from hunger could be reduced by as much as 40% and food prices could be reduced by almost half.[128]

Payment for ecosystem services is a method of providing additional incentives to encourage farmers to conserve some aspects of the environment. Measures might include paying for reforestation upstream of a city, to improve the supply of fresh water.[129]

Crop alteration and biotechnology

Main article: Plant breeding

Wheat cultivar tolerant of high salinity (left) compared with non-tolerant variety

Crop alteration has been practiced by humankind for thousands of years, since the beginning of civilization. Altering crops through breeding practices changes the genetic make-up of a plant to develop crops with more beneficial characteristics for humans, for example, larger fruits or seeds, drought-tolerance, or resistance to pests. Significant advances in plant breeding ensued after the work of geneticist Gregor Mendel. His work on dominant and recessive alleles, although initially largely ignored for almost 50 years, gave plant breeders a better understanding of genetics and breeding techniques. Crop breeding includes techniques such as plant selection with desirable traits, self-pollination and cross-pollination, and molecular techniques that genetically modify the organism.[130]

Domestication of plants has, over the centuries increased yield, improved disease resistance and drought tolerance, eased harvest and improved the taste and nutritional value of crop plants. Careful selection and breeding have had enormous effects on the characteristics of crop plants. Plant selection and breeding in the 1920s and 1930s improved pasture (grasses and clover) in New Zealand. Extensive X-ray and ultraviolet induced mutagenesis efforts (i.e. primitive genetic engineering) during the 1950s produced the modern commercial varieties of grains such as wheat, corn (maize) and barley.[131][132]

The Green Revolution popularized the use of conventional hybridization to sharply increase yield by creating "high-yielding varieties". For example, average yields of corn (maize) in the US have increased from around 2.5 tons per hectare (t/ha) (40 bushels per acre) in 1900 to about 9.4 t/ha (150 bushels per acre) in 2001. Similarly, worldwide average wheat yields have increased from less than 1 t/ha in 1900 to more than 2.5 t/ha in 1990. South American average wheat yields are around 2 t/ha, African under 1 t/ha, and Egypt and Arabia up to 3.5 to 4 t/ha with irrigation. In contrast, the average wheat yield in countries such as France is over 8 t/ha. Variations in yields are due mainly to variation in climate, genetics, and the level of intensive farming techniques (use of fertilizers, chemical pest control, growth control to avoid lodging).[133][134][135]

Genetic engineering

Main article: Genetic engineering

See also: Genetically modified food, Genetically modified crops, Regulation of the release of genetic modified organisms, and Genetically modified food controversies

Genetically modified potato plants (left) resist virus diseases that damage unmodified plants (right).

Genetically modified organisms (GMO) are organisms whose genetic material has been altered by genetic engineering techniques generally known as recombinant DNA technology. Genetic engineering has expanded the genes available to breeders to utilize in creating desired germlines for new crops. Increased durability, nutritional content, insect and virus resistance and herbicide tolerance are a few of the attributes bred into crops through genetic engineering.[136] For some, GMO crops cause food safety and food labeling concerns. Numerous countries have placed restrictions on the production, import or use of GMO foods and crops.[137] Currently a global treaty, the Biosafety Protocol, regulates the trade of GMOs. There is ongoing discussion regarding the labeling of foods made from GMOs, and while the EU currently requires all GMO foods to be labeled, the US does not.[138]

Herbicide-resistant seed has a gene implanted into its genome that allows the plants to tolerate exposure to herbicides, including glyphosate. These seeds allow the farmer to grow a crop that can be sprayed with herbicides to control weeds without harming the resistant crop. Herbicide-tolerant crops are used by farmers worldwide.[139] With the increasing use of herbicide-tolerant crops, comes an increase in the use of glyphosate-based herbicide sprays. In some areas glyphosate resistant weeds have developed, causing farmers to switch to other herbicides.[140][141] Some studies also link widespread glyphosate usage to iron deficiencies in some crops, which is both a crop production and a nutritional quality concern, with potential economic and health implications.[142]

Other GMO crops used by growers include insect-resistant crops, which have a gene from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), which produces a toxin specific to insects. These crops resist damage by insects.[143] Some believe that similar or better pest-resistance traits can be acquired through traditional breeding practices, and resistance to various pests can be gained through hybridization or cross-pollination with wild species. In some cases, wild species are the primary source of resistance traits; some tomato cultivars that have gained resistance to at least 19 diseases did so through crossing with wild populations of tomatoes.[144]

Environmental impact

Main article: Environmental issues with agriculture

Water pollution in a rural stream due to runoff from farming activity in New Zealand

Effects and costs

Agriculture imposes multiple external costs upon society through effects such as pesticide damage to nature (especially herbicides and insecticides), nutrient runoff, excessive water usage, and loss of natural environment. A 2000 assessment of agriculture in the UK determined total external costs for 1996 of £2,343 million, or £208 per hectare.[145] A 2005 analysis of these costs in the US concluded that cropland imposes approximately $5 to $16 billion ($30 to $96 per hectare), while livestock production imposes $714 million.[146] Both studies, which focused solely on the fiscal impacts, concluded that more should be done to internalize external costs. Neither included subsidies in their analysis, but they noted that subsidies also influence the cost of agriculture to society.[145][146]

Agriculture seeks to increase yield and to reduce costs. Yield increases with inputs such as fertilisers and removal of pathogens, predators, and competitors (such as weeds). Costs decrease with increasing scale of farm units, such as making fields larger; this means removing hedges, ditches and other areas of habitat. Pesticides kill insects, plants and fungi. These and other measures have cut biodiversity to very low levels on intensively farmed land.[147]

In 2010, the International Resource Panel of the United Nations Environment Programme assessed the environmental impacts of consumption and production. It found that agriculture and food consumption are two of the most important drivers of environmental pressures, particularly habitat change, climate change, water use and toxic emissions. Agriculture is the main source of toxins released into the environment, including insecticides, especially those used on cotton.[148] The 2011 UNEP Green Economy report states that "[a]gricultural operations, excluding land use changes, produce approximately 13 per cent of anthropogenic global GHG emissions. This includes GHGs emitted by the use of inorganic fertilisers agro-chemical pesticides and herbicides; (GHG emissions resulting from production of these inputs are included in industrial emissions); and fossil fuel-energy inputs.[149] "On average we find that the total amount of fresh residues from agricultural and forestry production for second- generation biofuel production amounts to 3.8 billion tonnes per year between 2011 and 2050 (with an average annual growth rate of 11 per cent throughout the period analysed, accounting for higher growth during early years, 48 per cent for 2011–2020 and an average 2 per cent annual expansion after 2020)."[149]

Livestock issues

Farmyard anaerobic digester converts waste plant material and manure from livestock into biogas fuel.

A senior UN official, Henning Steinfeld, said that "Livestock are one of the most significant contributors to today's most serious environmental problems".[150] Livestock production occupies 70% of all land used for agriculture, or 30% of the land surface of the planet. It is one of the largest sources of greenhouse gases, responsible for 18% of the world's greenhouse gas emissions as measured in CO2 equivalents. By comparison, all transportation emits 13.5% of the CO2. It produces 65% of human-related nitrous oxide (which has 296 times the global warming potential of CO2,) and 37% of all human-induced methane (which is 23 times as warming as CO2.) It also generates 64% of the ammonia emission. Livestock expansion is cited as a key factor driving deforestation; in the Amazon basin 70% of previously forested area is now occupied by pastures and the remainder used for feedcrops.[151] Through deforestation and land degradation, livestock is also driving reductions in biodiversity. Furthermore, the UNEP states that "methane emissions from global livestock are projected to increase by 60 per cent by 2030 under current practices and consumption patterns."[149]

Land and water issues

See also: Environmental impact of irrigation

Circular irrigated crop fields in Kansas. Healthy, growing crops of corn and sorghum are green (sorghum may be slightly paler). Wheat is brilliant gold. Fields of brown have been recently harvested and plowed or have lain in fallow for the year.

Land transformation, the use of land to yield goods and services, is the most substantial way humans alter the Earth's ecosystems, and is considered the driving force in the loss of biodiversity. Estimates of the amount of land transformed by humans vary from 39 to 50%.[152] Land degradation, the long-term decline in ecosystem function and productivity, is estimated to be occurring on 24% of land worldwide, with cropland overrepresented.[153] The UN-FAO report cites land management as the driving factor behind degradation and reports that 1.5 billion people rely upon the degrading land. Degradation can be deforestation, desertification, soil erosion, mineral depletion, or chemical degradation (acidification and salinization).[111]

Eutrophication, excessive nutrients in aquatic ecosystems resulting in algal blooms and anoxia, leads to fish kills, loss of biodiversity, and renders water unfit for drinking and other industrial uses. Excessive fertilization and manure application to cropland, as well as high livestock stocking densities cause nutrient (mainly nitrogen and phosphorus) runoff and leaching from agricultural land. These nutrients are major nonpoint pollutants contributing to eutrophication of aquatic ecosystems and pollution of groundwater, with harmful effects on human populations.[154] Fertilisers also reduce terrestrial biodiversity by increasing competition for light, favouring those species that are able to benefit from the added nutrients.[155] Agriculture accounts for 70 percent of withdrawals of freshwater resources.[156] Agriculture is a major draw on water from aquifers, and currently draws from those underground water sources at an unsustainable rate. It is long known that aquifers in areas as diverse as northern China, the Upper Ganges and the western US are being depleted, and new research extends these problems to aquifers in Iran, Mexico and Saudi Arabia.[157] Increasing pressure is being placed on water resources by industry and urban areas, meaning that water scarcity is increasing and agriculture is facing the challenge of producing more food for the world's growing population with reduced water resources.[158] Agricultural water usage can also cause major environmental problems, including the destruction of natural wetlands, the spread of water-borne diseases, and land degradation through salinization and waterlogging, when irrigation is performed incorrectly.[159]

Pesticides

Main article: Environmental impact of pesticides

Spraying a crop with a pesticide

Pesticide use has increased since 1950 to 2.5 million short tons annually worldwide, yet crop loss from pests has remained relatively constant.[160] The World Health Organization estimated in 1992 that three million pesticide poisonings occur annually, causing 220,000 deaths.[161] Pesticides select for pesticide resistance in the pest population, leading to a condition termed the "pesticide treadmill" in which pest resistance warrants the development of a new pesticide.[162]

An alternative argument is that the way to "save the environment" and prevent famine is by using pesticides and intensive high yield farming, a view exemplified by a quote heading the Center for Global Food Issues website: 'Growing more per acre leaves more land for nature'.[163][164] However, critics argue that a trade-off between the environment and a need for food is not inevitable,[165] and that pesticides simply replace good agronomic practices such as crop rotation.[162] The Push–pull agricultural pest management technique involves intercropping, using plant aromas to repel pests from crops (push) and to lure them to a place from which they can then be removed (pull).[166]

Global warming

Main article: Climate change and agriculture

Winnowing grain: global warming will probably harm crop yields in low latitude countries like Ethiopia.

Global warming and agriculture are interrelated on a global scale. Global warming affects agriculture through changes in average temperatures, rainfall, and weather extremes (like storms and heat waves); changes in pests and diseases; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods;[167] and changes in sea level.[168] Global warming is already affecting agriculture, with effects unevenly distributed across the world.[169] Future climate change will probably negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries, while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative.[169] Global warming will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups, such as the poor.[170]

Animal husbandry is also responsible for greenhouse gas production of CO

2 and a percentage of the world's methane, and future land infertility, and the displacement of wildlife. Agriculture contributes to climate change by anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases, and by the conversion of non-agricultural land such as forest for agricultural use.[171] Agriculture, forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25% to global annual emissions in 2010.[172] A range of policies can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture,[173][174] and greenhouse gas emissions from the agriculture sector.[175][176][177]

Sustainability

See also: List of sustainable agriculture topics

Terraces, conservation tillage and conservation buffers reduce soil erosion and water pollution on this farm in Iowa.

Current farming methods have resulted in over-stretched water resources, high levels of erosion and reduced soil fertility. There is not enough water to continue farming using current practices; therefore how critical water, land, and ecosystem resources are used to boost crop yields must be reconsidered. A solution would be to give value to ecosystems, recognizing environmental and livelihood tradeoffs, and balancing the rights of a variety of users and interests.[178] Inequities that result when such measures are adopted would need to be addressed, such as the reallocation of water from poor to rich, the clearing of land to make way for more productive farmland, or the preservation of a wetland system that limits fishing rights.[179]

Technological advancements help provide farmers with tools and resources to make farming more sustainable.[180] Technology permits innovations like conservation tillage, a farming process which helps prevent land loss to erosion, reduces water pollution, and enhances carbon sequestration.[181]

According to a report by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI),[128] agricultural technologies will have the greatest impact on food production if adopted in combination with each other; using a model that assessed how eleven technologies could impact agricultural productivity, food security and trade by 2050, IFPRI found that the number of people at risk from hunger could be reduced by as much as 40% and food prices could be reduced by almost half.[128] The caloric demand of Earth's projected population, with current climate change predictions, can be satisfied by additional improvement of agricultural methods, expansion of agricultural areas, and a sustainability-oriented consumer mindset.[182]

Energy dependence

Mechanised agriculture: from the first models in the 1940s, tools like a cotton picker could replace 50 farm workers, at the price of increased use of fossil fuel.

Since the 1940s, agricultural productivity has increased dramatically, due largely to the increased use of energy-intensive mechanization, fertilizers and pesticides. The vast majority of this energy input comes from fossil fuel sources.[183] Between the 1960s and the 1980s, the Green Revolution transformed agriculture around the globe, with world grain production increasing significantly (between 70% and 390% for wheat and 60% to 150% for rice, depending on geographic area)[184] as world population doubled. Heavy reliance on petrochemicals has raised concerns that oil shortages could increase costs and reduce agricultural output.[185]

Industrialized agriculture depends on fossil fuels in two fundamental ways: direct consumption on the farm and manufacture of inputs used on the farm. Direct consumption includes the use of lubricants and fuels to operate farm vehicles and machinery.[185]

Agriculture and food system share (%) of total energy

consumption by three industrialized nations

Country Year Agriculture

(direct & indirect) Food

system

United Kingdom[186] 2005 1.9 11

United States[187] 2002 2.0 14

Sweden[188] 2000 2.5 13

Indirect consumption includes the manufacture of fertilizers, pesticides, and farm machinery.[185] In particular, the production of nitrogen fertilizer can account for over half of agricultural energy usage.[189] Together, direct and indirect consumption by US farms accounts for about 2% of the nation's energy use. Direct and indirect energy consumption by U.S. farms peaked in 1979, and has since gradually declined.[185] Food systems encompass not just agriculture but off-farm processing, packaging, transporting, marketing, consumption, and disposal of food and food-related items. Agriculture accounts for less than one-fifth of food system energy use in the US.[190][187]

Disciplines

Agricultural economics

Main article: Agricultural economics

Agricultural economics refers to economics as it relates to the "production, distribution and consumption of [agricultural] goods and services".[191] Combining agricultural production with general theories of marketing and business as a discipline of study began in the late 1800s, and grew significantly through the 20th century.[192] Although the study of agricultural economics is relatively recent, major trends in agriculture have significantly affected national and international economies throughout history, ranging from tenant farmers and sharecropping in the post-American Civil War Southern United States[193] to the European feudal system of manorialism.[194] In the United States, and elsewhere, food costs attributed to food processing, distribution, and agricultural marketing, sometimes referred to as the value chain, have risen while the costs attributed to farming have declined. This is related to the greater efficiency of farming, combined with the increased level of value addition (e.g. more highly processed products) provided by the supply chain. Market concentration has increased in the sector as well, and although the total effect of the increased market concentration is likely increased efficiency, the changes redistribute economic surplus from producers (farmers) and consumers, and may have negative implications for rural communities.[195]

In 19th century Britain, the protectionist Corn Laws led to high prices and widespread protest, such as this 1846 meeting of the Anti-Corn Law League.[196]

National government policies can significantly change the economic marketplace for agricultural products, in the form of taxation, subsidies, tariffs and other measures.[197] Since at least the 1960s, a combination of trade restrictions, exchange rate policies and subsidies have affected farmers in both the developing and the developed world. In the 1980s, non-subsidized farmers in developing countries experienced adverse effects from national policies that created artificially low global prices for farm products. Between the mid-1980s and the early 2000s, several international agreements limited agricultural tariffs, subsidies and other trade restrictions.[198]

However, as of 2009, there was still a significant amount of policy-driven distortion in global agricultural product prices. The three agricultural products with the greatest amount of trade distortion were sugar, milk and rice, mainly due to taxation. Among the oilseeds, sesame had the greatest amount of taxation, but overall, feed grains and oilseeds had much lower levels of taxation than livestock products. Since the 1980s, policy-driven distortions have seen a greater decrease among livestock products than crops during the worldwide reforms in agricultural policy.[197] Despite this progress, certain crops, such as cotton, still see subsidies in developed countries artificially deflating global prices, causing hardship in developing countries with non-subsidized farmers.[199] Unprocessed commodities such as corn, soybeans, and cattle are generally graded to indicate quality, affecting the price the producer receives. Commodities are generally reported by production quantities, such as volume, number or weight.[200]

Agricultural science

Main article: Agricultural science

Further information: Agronomy

An agronomist mapping a plant genome

Agricultural science is a broad multidisciplinary field of biology that encompasses the parts of exact, natural, economic and social sciences used in the practice and understanding of agriculture. It covers topics such as agronomy, plant breeding and genetics, plant pathology, crop modelling, soil science, entomology, production techniques and improvement, study of pests and their management, and study of adverse environmental effects such as soil degradation, waste management, and bioremediation.[201][202]

The scientific study of agriculture began in the 18th century, when Johann Friedrich Mayer conducted experiments on the use of gypsum (hydrated calcium sulphate) as a fertilizer.[203] Research became more systematic when in 1843, John Lawes and Henry Gilbert began a set of long-term agronomy field experiments at Rothamsted Research Station in England; some of them, such as the Park Grass Experiment, are still running.[204][205] In America, the Hatch Act of 1887 provided funding for what it was the first to call "agricultural science", driven by farmers' interest in fertilizers.[206] In agricultural entomology, the USDA began to research biological control in 1881; it instituted its first large program in 1905, searching Europe and Japan for natural enemies of the gypsy moth and brown-tail moth, establishing parasitoids (such as solitary wasps) and predators of both pests in the USA.[207][208][209]

Policy

Main article: Agricultural policy

Direct subsidies for animal products and feed by OECD countries in 2012, in billions of US dollars[210]

Product Subsidy

Beef and veal 18.0

Milk 15.3

Pigs 7.3

Poultry 6.5

Soybeans 2.3

Eggs 1.5

Sheep 1.1

Agricultural policy is the set of government decisions and actions relating to domestic agriculture and imports of foreign agricultural products. Governments usually implement agricultural policies with the goal of achieving a specific outcome in the domestic agricultural product markets. Some overarching themes include risk management and adjustment (including policies related to climate change, food safety and natural disasters), economic stability (including policies related to taxes), natural resources and environmental sustainability (especially water policy), research and development, and market access for domestic commodities (including relations with global organizations and agreements with other countries).[211] Agricultural policy can also touch on food quality, ensuring that the food supply is of a consistent and known quality, food security, ensuring that the food supply meets the population's needs, and conservation. Policy programs can range from financial programs, such as subsidies, to encouraging producers to enroll in voluntary quality assurance programs.[212]

There are many influences on the creation of agricultural policy, including consumers, agribusiness, trade lobbies and other groups. Agribusiness interests hold a large amount of influence over policy making, in the form of lobbying and campaign contributions. Political action groups, including those interested in environmental issues and labor unions, also provide influence, as do lobbying organizations representing individual agricultural commodities.[213] The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) leads international efforts to defeat hunger and provides a forum for the negotiation of global agricultural regulations and agreements. Dr. Samuel Jutzi, director of FAO's animal production and health division, states that lobbying by large corporations has stopped reforms that would improve human health and the environment. For example, proposals in 2010 for a voluntary code of conduct for the livestock industry that would have provided incentives for improving standards for health, and environmental regulations, such as the number of animals an area of land can support without long-term damage, were successfully defeated due to large food company pressure.[214]

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